Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
Two composite images show side-by-side observations of the Perseus Cluster from NASA’s IXPE (Imaging X-Ray Polarimetry Explorer) and Chandra X-ray Observatory. Scientists used data from both observatories, along with data from Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR), and Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory, to confirm measurements of the galaxy cluster.
X-ray: (Chandra) NASA/CXC/SAO, (IXPE) NASA/MSFC; Image Processing: NASA/CXC/SAO/N. Wolk and K. Arcand
Written by Michael Allen
An international team of astronomers using NASA’s IXPE (Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer) has identified the origin of X-rays in a supermassive black hole’s jet, answering a question that has been unresolved since the earliest days of X-ray astronomy. Their findings are described in a paper published in The Astrophysical Journal Letters, by the American Astronomical Society, Nov. 11.
The IXPE mission observed the Perseus Cluster, the brightest galaxy cluster i observable in X-rays, for more than 600 hours over a 60-day period between January and March. Not only is this IXPE’s longest observation of a single target to date, it also marks IXPE’s first time observing a galaxy cluster.
Specifically, the team of scientists studied the polarization properties of 3C 84, the massive active galaxy located at the very center of the Perseus Cluster. This active galaxy is a well-known X-ray source and a common target for X-ray astronomers because of its proximity and brightness.
Because the Perseus Cluster is so massive, it hosts an enormous reservoir of X-ray emitting gas as hot as the core of the Sun. The use of multiple X-ray telescopes, particularly the high-resolution imaging power of NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory was essential to disentangle the signals in the IXPE data. Scientists combined these X-ray measurements with data from the agency’s Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) mission and Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory.
Fast facts
Polarization measurements from IXPE carry information about the orientation and alignment of emitted X-ray light waves. The more X-ray waves traveling in sync, the higher the degree of polarization.
X-rays from an active galaxy like 3C 84 are thought to originate from a process known as inverse Compton scattering, where light bounces off particles and gains energy. The polarization measurements from IXPE allow us to identify the presence of either inverse Compton scattering or other scenarios.
“Seed photons” is the term for the lower-energy radiation undergoing the energizing process of inverse Compton scattering.
“While measuring the polarization of 3C 84 was one of the key science goals, we are still searching for additional polarization signals in this galaxy cluster that could be signatures of more exotic physics,” said Steven Ehlert, project scientist for IXPE and astronomer at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville.
Chandra & IXPE composite image of the Perseus Cluster.
X-ray: (Chandra) NASA/CXC/SAO, (IXPE) NASA/MSFC; Image Processing: NASA/CXC/SAO/N. Wolk and K. Arcand
“We’ve already determined that for sources like 3C 84, the X-rays originated from inverse Compton scattering,” said Ioannis Liodakis, a researcher at the Institute of Astrophysics – FORTH in Heraklion, Greece, and lead author on the paper. “With IXPE observations of 3C 84 we had a unique chance to determine the properties of the seed photons.”
The first possible origin scenario for the seed photons is known as synchrotron self-Compton, where lower-energy radiation originates from the same jet that produces the highly energetic particles.
In the alternative scenario known as external Compton, seed photons originate from background radiation sources unrelated to the jet.
“The synchrotron self-Compton and external Compton scenarios have very different predictions for their X-ray polarization,” said Frederic Marin, an astrophysicist at the Strasbourg Astronomical Observatory in France and co-author of the study. “Any detection of X-ray polarization from 3C 84 almost decisively rules out the possibility of external Compton as the emission mechanism.”
Throughout the 60-day observation campaign, optical and radio telescopes around the world turned their attention to 3C 84 to further test between the two scenarios.
NASA’s IXPE measured a net polarization of 4% in the X-rays spectrum, with comparable values measured in the optical and radio data. These results strongly favor the synchrotron self-Compton model for the seed photons, where they come from the same jet as the higher-energy particles.
“Separating these two components was essential to this measurement and could not be done by any single X-ray telescope, but by combining the IXPE polarization data with Chandra, NuSTAR, and Swift, we were able to confirm this polarization measurement was associated specifically with 3C 84,” said Sudip Chakraborty, a researcher at the Science and Technology Institute of the Universities Space Research Association in Huntsville, Alabama, and co-author on the paper.
Scientists will continue to analyze IXPE’s data from different locations in the Perseus Cluster for different signals.
More about IXPE
NASA’s IXPE, which continues to provide unprecedented data enabling groundbreaking discoveries about celestial objects across the universe, is a joint NASA and Italian Space Agency mission with partners and science collaborators in 12 countries. The IXPE mission is led by NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. BAE Systems, Inc., headquartered in Falls Church, Virginia, manages spacecraft operations together with the University of Colorado’s Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics in Boulder.
NASA Launches Research Program for Students to Explore Big Ideas
NASA is now accepting concepts for a new research challenge. The Opportunities in Research, Business, Innovation, and Technology (ORBIT) challenge is a multi-phase innovation competition designed to empower university and college students to develop next-generation solutions that benefit life on Earth and deep-space exploration.
With up to $380,000 in total prize funding, NASA’s ORBIT challenges student teams to bring their most forward-thinking concepts to the table, either utilizing NASA intellectual property or conceptualizing their own. Teams are tasked with conducting targeted research, designing early mockups or models, and performing feasibility analyses to refine their ideas. Finalists then advance to a live showcase where they present their work to a panel of expert judges, who evaluate the proposals and select winners based on the teams’ final pitches and responses to questions.
The ORBIT has two challenge tracks for teams to choose from. The ORBIT Earth track requires teams to select a NASA-owned patent and develop novel commercial or nonprofit applications addressing real-world problems. From adapting aerospace materials for disaster response and preparedness, to repurposing space-based sensors for healthcare, students must demonstrate clear pathways to public benefit.
The ORBIT Space track asks teams to design new system concepts aligned with NASA’s current and future missions, particularly supporting the Artemis program’s goal of establishing a sustainable human presence on the Moon and preparing for eventual missions to Mars and beyond. Students will create technically feasible designs for everything from lunar habitats that could house future Artemis astronauts to deep space robotics that open more pathways to in-situ resource utilization. Teams that successfully integrate objectives from both tracks may qualify for an optional integration bonus.
This challenge accelerates innovation in areas critical to NASA’s future goals while cultivating a pipeline of interdisciplinary talent. By engaging the next generation in NASA’s dual mission to explore space and improve life on Earth, ORBIT inspires students to join the agency’s talent network while delivering tangible benefits to American communities and industries.
Beyond monetary awards, participants stand to gain mentorship from NASA experts, access to agency facilities, and hands-on experience in systems design, entrepreneurship, and commercialization.
For complete competition details, eligibility requirements, and official rules, visit: https://go.nasa.gov/4q2TS9u
Registration is open until Feb. 9, 2026, through the NASA STEM Gateway.
After 25 years of continuous human presence in space, the International Space Station remains a training and proving ground for deep space missions, enabling NASA to focus on Artemis missions to the Moon and Mars. The orbiting laboratory is also a living archive of human experience, culture, and connection.
Creating community
Expedition 34 crew members pictured in the Unity node of the International Space Station in December 2012.
NASA
With 290 visitors from 26 countries and five international partners, the space station has celebrated many different cultures during its 25 years of continuous human presence. Crew members share their holiday traditions, cuisine, music, and games with each other – creating their own community, similar to the ones they have back home, while maintaining a connection to Earth.
Crews living and working aboard the space station during the holiday season have found creative ways to mark the occasions from low Earth orbit. Festive socks, Halloween costumes, mini artificial Christmas trees, champagne, and candle-less menorahs are just a few of the items space station visitors have brought with them to spread holiday cheer.
Mealtimes are also the perfect opportunity to share a taste of home. The space station’s standard menu is inclusive of varied cuisines, but crew members also contribute their own special food items. French astronaut Thomas G. Pesquet once brought macarons to help celebrate his birthday, and several JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) astronauts have hosted sushi parties.
Sharing a piece of themselves and their cultures not only fosters crew camaraderie but also supports the international collaboration necessary to sustain the space station’s success.
Taking music to new heights
Expedition 55 crew members aboard the space station (from left) are NASA astronaut Drew Feustel, Roscosmos cosmonaut Oleg Artemyev, and NASA astronauts Ricky Arnold and Scott Tingle.
The first musical instrument, an acoustic guitar, arrived at the orbiting laboratory in August 2001. Since then, playing music aboard the orbiting laboratory has supported astronaut well-being, fostered relationships among international crew members, and helped them connect with home.
The space station’s instrument collection started with an acoustic guitar and an electric keyboard, and also includes an alto saxophone. Some NASA astronauts bring their own instruments to suit their playing habits – bagpipes for Kjell Lindgren, flutes for Catherine Coleman, a piccolo for Jessica Meir. International partners have, too. In April 2010, JAXA astronauts Soichi Noguchi and Naoko Yamazaki performed a duet using a bamboo flute and a miniature version of a traditional Japanese stringed instrument.
Several crew members have played in concerts on Earth while still orbiting the planet. Coleman played a duet with the frontman of Jethro Tull, for example, and ESA (European Space Agency) Luca Parmitano used the station’s electric keyboard to participate in a concert at Moscow’s Luzhniki Stadium. He later became the first person to perform a DJ set from space.
The space station has even hosted at least one epic jam session, featuring the crew members of Expedition 55 on guitar, flutes, and a drum made from a repurposed waste container.
NASA astronaut and Expedition 69 Flight Engineer Woody Hoburg plays guitar inside the space station’s Kibo laboratory module.
NASA astronaut Jessica Meir plays a saxophone in front of the station’s Cupola windows.
Roscosmos cosmonaut Aleksandr Gorbunov plays an electronic keyboard aboard the space station’s Harmony module.
NASA astronaut Cady Coleman plays a flute in the JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) Kibo laboratory aboard the space station.
Former NASA astronaut Dan Burbank plays a guitar while Russian cosmonaut Anton Shkaplerov plays a musical keyboard in the station’s Unity node.
An astronaut’s perspective
The sun shines above Earth’s horizon as the space station orbited 264 miles above the Canadian province of Quebec.
NASA
Across the decades and missions of U.S. human spaceflight, NASA astronauts have shared a unique and transcendent experience: looking down at Earth from the space station’s cupola windows. That experience has had a profound impact on many, creating a powerful shift in the way astronauts think about life and our home planet – a phenomenon known as the overview effect.
Crew members aboard the orbital outpost describe the beauty of our planet and how it stands in stark contrast to the darkness of space from the cupola module. Many comment on Earth’s fragility and the need to protect it after observing how thin the planet’s atmosphere appears to be from orbit. Others note the lack of borders or lines we see on a map, emphasizing that all of humanity is connected.
Regardless of how long they stay in orbit, astronauts return with a different worldview they are eager to share with others.
The space station provides a vantage point like no other. The cupola observation module, with its seven windows, offers unparalleled panoramic views of Earth and space which are crucial for monitoring mission activities, conducting scientific observations, and supporting crew morale and habitability. Astronauts aboard the orbiting laboratory have captured millions of photographs of Earth, creating a visual archive that spans 25 years of continuous human presence in orbit.
These images serve as scientific data used to track hurricanes, monitor wildfires, measure glacial retreat, and study urban growth through NASA’s Crew Earth Observations. Astronaut photography also supports NASA Disaster Response, a program that works with various NASA centers to collect data before, during, and following a disaster to aid recovery efforts.
The cupola has become a favorite spot for astronauts to work and reflect. Their photos help connect people worldwide to the orbital outpost, reinforcing the importance of protecting our planet.
Earth views
NASA astronaut Don Pettit photographs “cosmic colors at sunrise.” From 250 miles above, the space station’s orbital path covers most of Earth’s population, offering valuable data and a great opportunity for shooting photography.
The Full Moon is pictured setting below Earth’s horizon from the space station.
Earth observation taken by the Expedition 40 crew aboard the orbital outpost.
The southern coast of Africa is pictured from the space station’s “window to the world,” or cupola, as it soared 265 miles above.
Earth observation taken during a day pass by an Expedition 36 crew member aboard the space station.
The Canadarm2 robotic arm, with Dextre—its fine-tuned robotic hand—attached, extends from the space station’s Harmony module as the orbital outpost soars 263 miles above Kazakhstan.
Earth observation taken during a night pass by the Expedition 40 crew aboard the orbiting laboratory.
Clouds gather on Nepal’s sub-tropical side of the Himalayas with Mount Everest at the center of this photograph taken by an external high definition camera on the space station as it orbited 263 miles above the Indian subcontinent.
The Milky Way appears above Earth’s bright atmospheric glow from the orbital outpost as it soared 261 miles above southern Iran.
The soft hues of an orbital sunrise reveals the cloud tops above the Pacific Ocean northeast of New Zealand as the space station orbited 260 miles above.
NASA astronaut Don Pettit captures a photo of a fire in La Porte, Texas in 2024.
NASA astronaut John Phillips photographs a wildfire raging through northeast Phoenix in 2005.
The blue-green lights of fishing boats, designed to lure squid, sardines, or mackerel, dot the East China Sea and the Taiwan Strait contrasting with the coastal city lights of Taiwan and China. The space station was orbiting 259 miles above the South China Sea just south of Taiwan.
The Moon’s shadow, or umbra, is pictured covering portions of the Canadian provinces of Quebec and New Brunswick and the American state of Maine.
Lightning illuminates the cloud tops of Category 1 Hurricane Erick as it stormed across the Pacific Ocean south of the Mexican state of Chiapas.
Eruption of Cleveland Volcano, Aleutian Islands, Alaska in 2006.
Hurricane Gabrielle is seen in the Atlantic Ocean as a Category 4 storm with sustained winds of 140 miles per hour.
Hurricane Milton, a Category 5 storm at the time, in the Gulf of America off the coast of Yucatan Peninsula in 2024.
Wildfires burn throughout Canada’s central provinces sending smoke drifting into the United States’ Great Lakes and Northeast regions.
Lightning illuminates the cloud tops as the International Space Station orbits 259 miles above the Atlantic Ocean east of the Bahamas.
Station memories from the ground
Flight controllers at NASA’s Mission Control Center in Houston marked 25 years of continuous human presence in space with the Expedition 73 crew aboard the orbital outpost on Nov. 2, 2025.
NASA/Pooja J. Jesrani
Behind every moment aboard the orbiting laboratory is a dedicated team on the ground – engineers, scientists, flight directors, and communicators – who work around the clock to keep crews safe and missions running smoothly.
They mark milestones together, from spacecraft dockings and crew returns to mission anniversaries and plaque-hanging ceremonies. Teams on console in the mission control have even organized chess matches with astronauts in orbit to foster connection between Earth and space.
The flight control team celebrated the 25th anniversary of continuous human habitation in space with the Expedition 73 crew aboard the station on Nov. 2, 2025. The team congratulated the crew to mark the incredible milestone. They emphasized that humanity has held a heartbeat in orbit for a quarter century, a testament to human curiosity, cooperation, and courage that keeps the light of exploration shining above Earth and represents the very best of what humankind can achieve together. Every orbit, every experiment, and every challenge has taught teams how to adapt, grow, and build the skills needed for the next great leaps to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
Holidays are often spent in the control rooms, where teams decorate consoles, share potluck meals, and hold the occasional cookie-cutting contest. Engineers in the station’s Mission Evaluation Room (MER) host an annual “MERloween,” a tradition that began in 2006 to celebrate the year’s milestones and reflect on lessons learned.
These traditions highlight the spirit and teamwork that make every mission possible. The dedication honed through decades of mission support now guides the teamwork and expertise that will send Artemis astronauts to the Moon and beyond.
Flight controllers in mission control celebrate the holidays while supporting crews aboard the space station.
NASA/Josh Valcarcel
Painting hope beyond Earth
NASA astronaut Nicole Stott, the first person to watercolor in space, paints aboard the space station.
NASA
Former NASA astronaut Nicole Stott became the first person to watercolor in space during her time aboard the orbiting laboratory. Inspired by the beauty of Earth from orbit, she used her art to connect the science of human spaceflight with the creativity that defines it.
After returning to Earth, Stott helped launch the Space for Art Foundation, which unites children around the world through the healing power of art and space. One of its most meaningful initiatives, the Spacesuit Art Project, invites young patients undergoing cancer treatment to create colorful artwork that is transformed into custom-made spacesuits. Each suit – Hope, Courage, Unity, Victory, Dreamer, Exploration, Beyond, and Infinity – celebrates the imagination and resilience of its creators.
Four of these suits have journeyed to and from the orbiting laboratory, where astronauts wore them during special downlinks to speak with the patients and raise awareness for childhood cancer research. The project shows that space exploration is not only about discovery, but about compassion, creativity, and the human spirit that connects us all.
How Small Is Too Small? Volunteers Help NASA Test Lake Monitoring From Space
Jen Oden, Snohomish County Water Quality Specialist, and Megan Lane, LOCSS team member, report a lake height measurement at Flowing Lake, Snohomish County, Washington. Visit locss.org to contact the team or to get involved!
Grant Parkins, 2018
Volunteers participating in the Lake Observations by Citizen Scientists and Satellites (LOCSS) project have been collecting water level data in lakes since 2017. Now, the LOCSS team has used these data to examine the accuracy of water level measurements made from space. The results, published in GIScience & Remote Sensing, showed that modern satellites with special instruments called nadir altimeters can capture water level variation with relatively high accuracy even for lakes smaller than one square kilometer. These measurements are crucial for scientific research and resource management.
“We can look at the wetland now with different eyes,” said Nelsi Durán, a volunteer from Ciénaga La Musanda, Colombia. (Translated from Spanish).
The work done by LOCSS volunteers also helped reveal where satellite-based lake water level measurements can go wrong. Water level variability turns out to be an important factor. Relatively small lakes with a high lake level variability can be measured from space, but lakes where the water level seldom changes yielded measurements with lower accuracy.
The LOCSS project has included 274 lakes in 10 countries (USA, Canada, Colombia, Chile, Kenya, Spain, France, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh), so far. Since the project started, more than 10,000 citizen scientists have reported water level measurements to the project.
“We chose to work with the LOCSS team, because it is important for us to try to widen our understanding of how our environments change over time,” said Dan Grigas, an ecologist at Forest Preserve District, DuPage County, Illinois. “This includes how changes in climate patterns in both the near-term and long-term can affect freshwater ecology. This program also allows for and relies on citizen scientists to participate, which strengthens the relationships among government agencies, the people they serve, and the environments that we all treasure.” Are you passionate about understanding our planet and its precious water resources? Visit locss.org and look for a participating lake near you!
Artemis II NASA astronauts (left to right) Reid Wiseman, Victor Glover, and Christina Koch, and CSA (Canadian Space Agency) astronaut Jeremy Hansen stand in the white room on the crew access arm of the mobile launcher at Launch Pad 39B as part of an integrated ground systems test at the agency’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida on Sept. 20, 2023.
Credit: NASA/Frank Michaux
With a second Trump Administration at the helm in 2025, NASA marked significant progress toward the Artemis II test flight early next year, which is the first crewed mission around the Moon in more than 50 years, as well as built upon its momentum toward a human return to the lunar surface in preparation to send the first astronauts — Americans — to Mars.
As part of the agency’s Golden Age of innovation and exploration, NASA and its partners landed two robotic science missions on the Moon; garnered more signatories for the Artemis Accords with 59 nations now agreeing to safe, transparent, and responsible lunar exploration; as well as advanced a variety of medical and technological experiments for long-duration space missions like hand-held X-ray equipment and navigation capabilities.
NASA also led a variety of science discoveries, including launching a joint satellite mission with India to regularly monitor Earth’s land and ice-covered surfaces, as well as identifying and tracking the third interstellar object in our solar system; achieved 25 continuous years of human presence aboard the International Space Station; and, for the first time, flew a test flight of the agency’s X-59 supersonic plane that will help revolutionize air travel.
Sean Duffy, named by President Trump, is serving as the acting administrator while NASA awaits confirmation of Jared Isaacman to lead the agency. Isaacman’s nomination hearing took place in early December, and his nomination was passed out of committee with bipartisan support. The full Senate will consider Isaacman’s nomination soon. President Trump also nominated Matt Anderson to serve as deputy administrator, and Greg Autry to serve as chief financial officer, both of whom are awaiting confirmation hearings. NASA named Amit Kshatriya to associate administrator, the agency’s highest-ranking civil servant position.
Key accomplishments by NASA in 2025 include:
Astronauts exploring Moon, Mars is on horizon
Under Artemis, NASA will send astronauts on increasingly difficult missions to explore more of the Moon for scientific discovery, economic benefits, and to build upon our foundation for the first crewed mission to Mars. The Artemis II test flight is the first flight with crew under NASA’s Artemis campaign and is slated to launch in early 2026. The mission will help confirm systems and hardware for future lunar missions, including Artemis III’s astronaut lunar landing.
NASA also introduced 10 new astronaut candidates in September, selected from more than 8,000 applicants. The class is undertaking nearly two years of training for future missions to low Earth orbit, the Moon, and Mars.
Progress to send the first crews around the Moon and on the lunar surface under Artemis includes:
NASA completed stacking of its Space Launch System rocket and Orion spacecraft for Artemis II. Teams integrated elements manufactured across the country at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida, including the rocket’s boosters and core stage, as well as Orion’s stage adapter and launch abort system, to name a few.
Ahead of America’s 250th birthday next year, the SLS rocket’s twin-pair of solid rocket boosters showcases the America 250 emblem.
The Artemis II crew participated in more than 30 mission simulations alongside teams on the ground, ensuring the crew and launch, flight, and recovery teams are prepared for any situation that may arise during the test flight. Soon, crew will don their survival suits and get strapped into Orion during a countdown demonstration test, serving as a dress rehearsal for launch day.
The agency worked with the Department of War to conduct a week-long underway recovery test in preparation to safely collect the Artemis II astronauts after they splashdown following their mission.
To support later missions, teams conducted a booster firing test for future rocket generations, verified new RS-25 engines, test-fired a new hybrid rocket motor to help engineering teams better understand the physics of rocket exhaust and lunar landers, as well using various mockups to test landing capabilities in various lighting conditions. Teams also conducted human-in-the-loop testing in Japan with JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) with a rover mockup from their agency.
NASA also continued work with Axiom Space, to develop and test the company’s spacesuit, including completing a test run at the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory at NASA Johnson ahead of using the suit for Artemis training. The spacesuit will be worn by Artemis astronauts during the Artemis III mission to the lunar South Pole.
On the Moon, future crew will use a lunar terrain vehicle, or LTV, to travel away from their landing zone. NASA previously awarded three companies feasibility studies for developing LTV, followed by a request for proposals earlier this year. The agency is expected to make an award soon to develop, deliver, and demonstrate LTV on the lunar surface later this decade. The agency also selected two science instruments that will be included on the LTV to study the Moon’s surface composition and scout for potential resources.
For operations around the Moon, NASA and its partners continued to develop Gateway to support missions between lunar orbit and the Moon’s surface. Construction and production of the first two elements, a power and propulsion system and habitation element, each progressed, as did development and testing of potential science and technology demonstrations operated from Gateway. International partners also continued work that may contribute technology to support those elements, as well as additional habitation capabilities and an airlock.
This past year, NASA’s Lunar Surface Innovation Consortium team collaborated with over 3,900 members from academia, industry, and government on key lunar surface capabilities. Members from across the U.S. and 71 countries participated in two biannual meetings, three lunar surface workshops, and monthly topic meetings, resulting in 10 studies, four reports, and nine conference presentations.
Building on previous missions and planning for the future, NASA will conduct more science and technology demonstrations on and around the Moon than ever before. Work toward effort included:
Selected a suite of science studies for the Artemis II mission, including studies that focus on astronauts’ health.
Launched two CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Services) flights with NASA as a key customer, including Firefly’s Blue Ghost Mission One, which landed on the Moon March 2, and Intuitive Machines’ Nova C lunar lander, which touched down on March 6.
Experiments and tech demos aboard these flights included an electrodynamic dust shield, lunar navigation system, high-performance computing, collection of more than 9,000 first-of-a-kind images of the lunar lander’s engine plumes, and more.
For future CLPS flights, NASA awarded Blue Origin a task order with an option to deliver the agency’s VIPER (Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover) to the lunar South Pole in late 2027, as well as awarded Firefly another flight, slated for 2030.
Teams studied regolith (lunar dirt and rocks) in a simulated lunar gravity environment and tested how solid materials catch fire in space.
The agency’s 55-pound CubeSat in lunar orbit, CAPSTONE, exceeded 1,000 days in space, serving as a testbed for autonomous navigation and in-space communications.
Published findings from this Artemis I experiment highlighting why green algae may be a very good deep space travel companion.
NASA announced its 2025 Astronaut Candidate Class on Sept. 22, 2025. The 10 candidates, pictured here at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston are: U.S. Army CW3 Ben Bailey, Anna Menon, Rebecca Lawler, Katherine Spies, U.S. Air Force Maj. Cameron Jones, Dr. Lauren Edgar, U.S. Navy Lt. Cmdr. Erin Overcash, Yuri Kubo, Dr. Imelda Muller, and U.S. Air Force Maj. Adam Fuhrmann.
Credit: NASA/Josh Valcarcel
Technological and scientific steps toward humanity’s next giant leap on the Red Planet include:
Launched a pair of spacecraft, known as ESCAPADE, on a mission to Mars, arriving in September 2027, to study how its magnetic environment is impacted by the Sun. This data will better inform our understanding of space weather, which is important to help minimize the effects of radiation for future missions with crew.
NASA announced Steve Sinacore, from the agency’s Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, to lead the nation’s fission surface power efforts.
Selected participants for a second yearlong ground-based simulation of a human mission to Mars, which began in October, as well as tested a new deep space inflatable habitat concept.
Completed the agency’s Deep Space Optical Communications experiment, which exceeded all of its technical goals after two years. This type of laser communications has the potential to support high-bandwidth connections for long duration crewed missions in deep space.
NASA completed its fourth Entry Descent and Landing technology test in three months, accelerating innovation to achieve precision landings on Mars’ thin atmosphere and rugged terrain.
Through the Artemis Accords, seven new nations have joined the United States, led by NASA and the U.S. Department of State, in a voluntary commitment to the safe, transparent, and responsible exploration of the Moon, Mars, and beyond. With nearly 60 signatories, more countries are expected to sign in the coming months and years.
A NASA delegation participated in the 76th International Astronautical Congress in Sydney, Australia. During the congress, NASA co-chaired the Artemis Accords Principals’ Meeting, bringing together dozens of nations furthering discussions on their implementation.
Finally, NASA engaged the public to join its missions to the Moon and Mars through a variety of activities. The agency sought names from people around the world to fly their name on a SD card aboard Orion during the Artemis II mission. NASA also sponsored a global challenge to design the spacecraft’s zero gravity indicator, announcing 25 finalists this year for the mascot design. Artemis II crew members are expected to announce a winner soon.
NASA’s gold standard science benefits humanity
In addition to conducting science at the Moon and Mars to further human exploration in the solar system, the agency continues its quest in the search for life, and its scientific work defends the planet from asteroids, advances wildfire monitoring from its satellites, studies the Sun, and more.
Garnering significant interest this year, NASA has coordinated a solar system-wide observation campaign to follow comet 3I/ATLAS, the third known interstellar object to pass through our solar system. To date, 12 NASA spacecraft and space-based telescopes have captured and processed imagery of the comet since its discovery in the summer.
Astrobiology
A Perseverance sample found on Mars potentially contain biosignatures, a substance or structure that might have a biological origin but requires additional data and studying before any conclusions can be reached about the absence or presence of life.
Samples from asteroid Bennu revealed sugars, amino acids, and other life-building molecules.
Planetary Defense
In defense of Earth and protecting humanity, NASA has continued to monitor a near-Earth object that triggered potential impact notifications.
Scientists have worked to calculate more precise impact models, noting the asteroid, which poses no significant threat to Earth, has only a 0.0004% chance of hitting our planet. An international satellite determined NASA’s DART (Double Asteroid Redirect Test) released 35.5 million pounds of dust and rock from the mission’s impact in 2022.
In addition to launching the NISAR mission, here are other key science moments:
Completion of NASA’s next flagship observatory, the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope, is done, with final testing underway. The telescope will help answer questions about dark energy and exoplanets and will be ready to launch as early as fall of 2026.
The agency’s newest operating flagship telescope, James Webb Space Telescope, now in its third year, continued to transform our understanding of the universe, and Hubble celebrated its 35th year with a 2.5-gigapixel Andromeda galaxy mosaic.
Juno found a massive, hyper-energetic volcano on Jupiter’s moon Io.
NASA’s Parker Solar Probe team shared new images of the Sun’s atmosphere, taken closer to the star than ever captured before.
Lucy completed a successful rehearsal flyby of the asteroid Donaldjohanson.
NASA space telescopes including Chandra X-ray Observatory, IXPE, Fermi, Swift, and NuSTAR continued to reveal secrets in the universe from record-setting black holes to the first observations of the cosmos’ most magnetic objects.
NASA’s ESCAPADE (Escape and Plasma Acceleration and Dynamics Explorers) mission launched on Nov. 13, 2025, atop a Blue Origin New Glenn rocket at Launch Complex 36 at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station.
Credit: Blue Origin
25 years of continuous presence in low Earth orbit
In 2025, the International Space Station celebrated 25 years of continuous human presence, a milestone achievement underscoring its role as a beacon of global cooperation in space. The orbital laboratory supported thousands of hours of groundbreaking research in microgravity in 2025, advancing commercial space development and preparing for future human exploration of the Moon and Mars.
For the first time, all eight docking ports were occupied by visiting spacecraft to close out the year, demonstrating the strength of NASA’s commercial and international partnerships. Twenty-five people from six countries lived and worked aboard the station this year. In all, 12 spacecraft visited the space station in 2025, including seven cargo missions delivering more than 50,000 pounds of science, tools, and critical supplies to the orbital complex.
Research aboard the International Space Station continues to benefit life on Earth and support deep space exploration.
Several studies with Crew-10 and Crew 11 aimed at understanding how the human body adapts to spaceflight, including a new study to assess astronauts’ performance, decision making, and piloting capabilities during simulated lunar landings.
In September, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved an early-stage cancer treatment, supported by research aboard the space station, that could reduce costs and shorten treatment times for patients.
Scientists also published findings in peer-reviewed journals on topics such as astronaut piloting performance after long missions, the use of biologically derived materials to shield against space radiation, robotic telesurgery in space, and how spaceflight affects stem cells, all advancing our understanding of human physiology in space and on Earth.
Researchers 3D-printed medical implants with potential to support nerve repair; advanced work toward large-scale, in-space semiconductor manufacturing; and researched the production of medical components with increased stability and biocompatibility that could improve medication delivery.
Additional notable space operations accomplishments included:
NASA’s SpaceX Crew-9 astronauts Nick Hague, Suni Williams, and Butch Wilmore returned in March after a long-duration mission, including more than eight months for Williams and Wilmore. The trio completed more than 150 scientific experiments and 900 hours of research during the stay aboard the orbiting laboratory. Williams also conducted two spacewalks, setting a new female spacewalking record with 62 hours, 6 minutes, and ranking her fourth all-time in spacewalk duration.
NASA astronaut Don Pettit returned in April with Roscosmos cosmonauts Alexey Ovchinin and Ivan Vagner, concluding a seven-month mission. Pettit, who turned 70 the day of his return, completed 400 hours of research during his flight, and has now logged 590 days in space across four missions.
SpaceX Dragon cargo missions 32 and 33 launched in April and August, delivering more than 11,700 pounds of cargo, while SpaceX 33 tested a new capability to help maintain the altitude of station.
Axiom Mission 4, the fourth private astronaut mission to the space station, concluded in July, furthering NASA’s efforts to support and advance commercial operations in low Earth orbit.
NASA SpaceX Crew-11 mission launched in August with NASA astronauts Zena Cardman and Mike Fincke, JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) astronaut Kimiya Yui, and Roscosmos cosmonaut Oleg Platonov aboard. The crew remains aboard the space station where they are conducting long-duration research to support deep space exploration and benefit life on Earth.
NASA’s SpaceX Crew-10 mission completed more than 600 hours of research before returning in August, when they became the first crewed SpaceX mission for NASA to splash down in the Pacific Ocean.
In September, the first Northrop Grumman Cygnus XL spacecraft arrived, delivering more than 11,000 pounds of cargo, including research supporting Artemis and Mars exploration.
NASA Glenn researchers tested handheld X-ray devices that could help astronauts quickly check for injuries or equipment problems during future space missions.
For nearly six years, NASA’s BioNutrients project has studied how to produce essential nutrients to support astronaut health during deep space missions, where food and vitamins have limited shelf lives. With its third experiment now aboard the International Space Station, the research continues to advance preparations for long-duration spaceflight.
NASA astronaut Chris Williams arrived with Roscosmos cosmonauts Sergey Kud-Sverchkov and Sergei Mikaev for an eight-month science mission aboard the station. Following their arrival, NASA astronaut Jonny Kim returned home, concluding his own eight-month mission.
NASA has worked with commercial companies to advance development of privately owned and operated space stations in low Earth orbit from which the agency, along with other customers, can purchase services and stimulate the growth of commercial activities in microgravity. This work is done in advance of the International Space Station’s retirement in 2030.
Among the many achievements made by our partners, recent advancements include:
Axiom Space has completed critical design review, machining activities, and the final welds, moving to testing for the primary structure of Axiom Station’s first module.
Completed testing of the trace contaminant control system for Vast’s Haven-1 space station using facilities at NASA Marshall, confirming the system can maintain a safe and healthy atmosphere.
Blue Origin’s Orbital Reef completed a human-in-the-loop testing milestone using individual participants or small groups to perform day-in-the-life walkthroughs in life-sized mockups of major station components.
The agency also continues to support the design and development of space stations and technologies through agreements with Northrop Grumman, Sierra Space, SpaceX, Special Aerospace Services, and ThinkOrbital.
On Nov. 2, 2025, the International Space Station celebrated 25 years of continuous human presence. Here, clouds swirl over the Gulf of Alaska and underneath the aurora borealis blanketing Earth’s horizon in this photograph from the space station as it orbited 261 miles above on March 12, 2025.
Credit: NASA
Pioneering aviation research
This year saw a major triumph for NASA’s aviation researchers, as its X-59 one-of-a-kind quiet supersonic aircraft made its historic first flight Oct 28. NASA test pilot Nils Larson flew the X-59 for 67 minutes up to an altitude of about 12,000 feet and an approximate top speed of 230 mph, precisely as planned. The flight capped off a year of engine testing including afterburner testing, taxi testing, and simulated flights from the ground — all to make sure first flight went safely and smoothly. The X-59 team will now focus on preparing for a series of flight tests where the aircraft will operate at higher altitudes and supersonic speeds. This flight test phase will ensure the X-59 meets performance and safety expectations. NASA’s Quesst mission also began testing the technologies that they will use to measure the X-59’s unique shock waves and study its acoustics during future mission phases.
Researchers also made other major strides to further aviation technologies that will benefit the public and first responders, including live flight testing of a new portable airspace management system with the potential to greatly improve air traffic awareness during wildland fire operations.
During the past year, the agency’s aeronautics researchers also:
Conducted live flight testing with aircraft performing simulated wildland fire response using NASA’s new portable airspace management system known as Advanced Capabilities for Emergency Response Operations (ACERO) project.
Used NASA’s Transonic Dynamics Tunnel in Virginia to test the performance of rotors designed for NASA’s Dragonfly rotorcraft, which will explore Saturn’s moon, Titan.
Performed wind tunnel tests to see how icing could affect longer, thinner wings on future airliners and to evaluate a tiltwing design likely to see wide usage in advanced air mobility vehicles.
Tested NASA-designed ultralight aerogel antennas that could be embedded into aircraft skin for more aerodynamic, reliable, satellite communications.
Worked to advance the airborne transportation of people and goods, including a collaboration with the Department of War to advance capabilities for long-distance cargo drones; a partnership to test a tool for remotely piloted urban air transportation; flight tests with partners exploring large-scale drone cargo flights; and work with ResilienX to enhance preflight planning for safer future skies.
Performed research to help with the integration of air taxis and similar future aircraft, such as producing real-world data to help understand their flight dynamics; dropping a full-scale fuselage model to test its materials upon impact; collecting to evaluate strategies for urban airspace integration; investigating passenger comfort; and testing 5G-based aviation network technology to boost air taxi connectivity. Evaluated a system that would help prevent collisions between air taxis and other future aircraft in urban environments.
Made advances to unsteady pressure sensitive paint wind tunnel technology, allowing it to measure air pressure on miniature aircraft and rocket models 10,000 times faster with 1,000 times higher resolution.
Collected data on mixed reality systems that allow users to interact with physical flight simulators while wearing virtual reality headsets.
Developed the GlennICE tool for U.S. researchers and aircraft developers to integrate icing-related considerations into aircraft design.
Supported research for safer and smoother airline and airport operations, including; developing a preflight rerouting tool to actively curb commercial airline delays and save fuel; demonstrating a unique air traffic management concept for safer aircraft operate at higher altitudes; and hosting technology testing to make runway taxiing safer and more efficient.
NASA’s X-59 quiet supersonic research aircraft lifts off for its first flight on Oct. 28, 2025, from U.S. Air Force Plant 42 in Palmdale, California. The aircraft’s first flight marks the start of flight testing for NASA’s Quesst mission, the result of years of design, integration, and ground testing.
Credit: NASA/Lori Losey
Technologies that advance exploration, support growing space economies
From spinoff technologies on Earth to accelerating development of technologies in low Earth orbit and at the Moon and Mars, NASA develops, demonstrates, and transfer new space technologies that benefit the agency, private companies, and other government agencies and missions.
Accomplishments by NASA and our partners in 2025 included:
NASA and Teledyne Energy Systems Inc. demonstrated a next-generation fuel cell system aboard a Blue Origin New Shepard mission, proving it can deliver reliable power in the microgravity environment of space.
Varda Space Industries licensed cutting-edge heatshield material from NASA, allowing it to be produced commercially for the company’s capsule containing a platform to process pharmaceuticals in microgravity. Through this commercial collaboration NASA is making entry system materials more readily available to the U.S. space economy and advancing the industries that depend on it.
The maiden flight of UP Aerospace’s Spyder hypersonic launch system demonstrated the U.S. commercial space industry’s capacity to test large payloads (up to 400 pounds) at five times the speed of sound. NASA’s support of Spyder’s development helped ensure the availability of fast-turnaround, lower cost testing services for U.S. government projects focused on space exploration and national security.
The NASA Integrated Rotating Detonation Engine System completed a test series for its first rotating detonation rocket engine technology thrust chamber assembly unit.
NASA successfully completed its automated space traffic coordination objectives between the agency’s four Starling spacecraft and SpaceX’s Starlink constellation. The Starling demonstration matured autonomous decision-making capabilities for spacecraft swarms using Distributed Spacecraft Autonomy software, developed by NASA’s Ames Research Center in California’s Silicon Valley.
NASA announced an industry partnership to design the Fly Foundational Robots mission to demonstrate use of Motiv Space Systems’ robotic arm aboard a hosted orbital flight test with Astro Digital.
The third spacecraft in the R5 (Realizing Rapid, Reduced-cost high-Risk Research) demonstration series launched aboard SpaceX’s Transporter-15 mission. This series of small satellites leverage terrestrial commercial off-the-shelf hardware to enable affordable, rapid orbital flight tests of rendezvous and proximity operations payloads.
The DUPLEX CubeSat developed by CU Aerospace deployed from the International Space Station to demonstrate two commercial micro-propulsion technologies for affordable small spacecraft propulsion systems.
Harnessing NASA’s brand power in real life, online
As one of the most recognized global brands and most followed on social media, NASA amplified its reach through force-multiplying engagement activities that generate excitement and support for the agency’s missions and help foster a Golden Age of innovators and explorers.
From collaborations with sport organizations and players to partnerships with world-renowned brands, these activities provide low-cost, high-impact avenues to engage an ever-expanding audience and reinforce NASA’s position as the world’s premier space agency. Engagement highlights from 2025 include:
Second Lady Usha Vance also kicked off her summer reading challenge at NASA’s Johnson Space Center in Houston, encouraging youth to seek adventure, imagination, and discovery in books, a sentiment close to NASA and everyone the agency inspires.
Reached nearly 5 million people through participation in hybrid and in-person events across the agency, including the White House’s Summer Reading Challenge, Open Sauce 2025, the Expedition 71 and 72 postflight visits, featuring NASA astronauts recently returned from missions aboard the space station, and more.
Participated in a variety of space policy conferences to include Space Symposium and the International Aeronautical Congress highlighting America’s leadership in human exploration to the Moon and Mars, responsible exploration under the Artemis Accords, and support for the commercial space sector.
In 2025, NASA also consolidated its social media accounts to improve clarity, compliance, and strategic alignment. After streamlining the number of active accounts, the agency grew its total following on these accounts by more than eight million, reaching nearly 367 million followers.
Other digital highlights included:
In 2025, NASA expanded access to its NASA+ streaming service by launching a free, ad-supported channel on Prime Video and announcing a new partnership with Netflix to stream live programming, including rocket launches and spacewalks, making its missions more accessible to global audiences and inspiring the next generation of explorers. As of November 2025, viewers have streamed more than 7.7 million minutes of NASA content on the Prime Video FAST channel.
NASA’s SpaceX Crew-9 return from the space station drew over 2.5 million live viewers, making it the agency’s most-watched event of 2025.
NASA aired live broadcasts for 17 launches in 2025, which have a combined 3.7 million views while live. NASA’s SpaceX Crew-10 and NISAR launches have the most views on YouTube, while crewed launches (Crew-10, Crew-11, and Axiom Mission 4) were the most-viewed while the broadcast was live.
The agency’s YouTube livestreams in 2025 surpassed 18.8 million total live views. The agency’s YouTube channel has more than 50.4 million total views for the year.
The agency’s podcasts were downloaded more than 2 million times in 2025 by more than 750,000 listeners.
Increased content production nearly tenfold for its science-focused website in Spanish, Ciencia de la NASA, and grew the website’s page views by 24% and visitor numbers by 25%. NASA’s Spanish language social media accounts experienced a 17% growth in followers in 2025.
The number of subscribers to NASA’s flagship and Spanish newsletters total more than 4.6 million.
NASA earned a spot on The Webby 30, a curated list celebrating 30 companies and organizations that have shaped the digital landscape.
More than 2.9 million viewers watched 38,400 hours of NASA’s on-demand streaming service NASA+ in 2025. November marked two years since NASA+ debuted.
Premiered “Planetary Defenders,” a new documentary that follows the dedicated team behind asteroid detection and planetary defense. The film debuted at an event at the agency’s headquarters with digital creators, interagency and international partners, and now is streaming on NASA+, YouTube, and X. In its first 24 hours, it saw 25,000 views on YouTube – 75% above average – and reached 4 million impressions on X.
“Cosmic Dawn,” a feature-length documentary following the creation of the James Webb Space Telescope, was released this year. The film has been viewed 1.6 million times on the agency’s YouTube channel.
Among agency awards:
NASA’s broadcast of the April 8, 2024, total solar eclipse won multiple Emmy Awards.
Received six Webby Awards and six People’s Voice Awards across platforms — recognition of America’s excellence in digital engagement and public communication.
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
A time-lapse video recorded at JPL in October shows engineers and technicians moving and attaching a full-scale model of Firefly Aerospace’s Blue Ghost lunar lander on top of two lunar orbiters. The full stack was then subjected to a vibration test that mimics the violent action of rocket launch.
NASA/JPL-Caltech
The same historic facilities that some 50 years ago prepared NASA’s twin Voyager probes for their ongoing interstellar odyssey are helping to ready a towering commercial spacecraft for a journey to the Moon. Launches involve brutal shaking and astonishingly loud noises, and testing in these facilities mimics those conditions to help ensure mission hardware can survive the ordeal. The latest spacecraft to get this treatment are Firefly Aerospace’s Blue Ghost Mission 2 vehicles, set to launch to the Moon’s far side next year.
The Environmental Test Laboratory at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California is where dozens of robotic spacecraft have been subjected to powerful jolts, extended rattling, high-decibel blasts of sound, and frigid and scorching temperatures, among other trials. Constructed in the 1960s and modernized over the years, the facilities have prepared every NASA spacecraft built or assembled at JPL for the rigors of space, from the Ranger spacecraft of the dawning Space Age to the Perseverance Mars rover to Europa Clipper, currently en route to the Jupiter system.
That legacy, and the decades of accumulated experience of the Environmental Test Laboratory team at JPL, is also supporting industry efforts to return to the Moon as part of NASA’s CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Services) initiative and its Artemis campaign, which will bring astronauts back to the lunar surface.
In recent months, a full-scale model of Firefly’s uncrewed Blue Ghost Mission 2 spacecraft was put through its paces by the experts in the lab’s vibration and acoustic testing facilities. Lessons learned with this model, called a structural qualification unit, will be applied to upcoming testing of the spacecraft that will fly to the Moon as early as 2026 through NASA’s CLPS.
“There’s a lot of knowledge gained over the years, passed from one generation of JPL engineers to another, that we bring to bear to support our own missions as well as commercial efforts,” said Michel William, a JPL engineer in the Environmental Test Laboratory who led the testing. “The little details that go into getting these tests right — nobody teaches you that in school, and it’s such a critical piece of space launch.”
Engineers and technicians secure a full-scale model of Firefly’s Blue Ghost lunar lander atop the other spacecraft that make up the company’s second delivery to the lunar surface. Environmental testing for the spacecraft took place in a clean room at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in October.
NASA/JPL-Caltech
Testing just right
The Environmental Test Laboratory team led environmental testing for Firefly’s Blue Ghost Mission 1 lander in 2024, and seeing the spacecraft achieve a soft Moon landing in March was a point of pride for them. Firefly’s next CLPS delivery debuts a dual-spacecraft configuration and hosts multiple international payloads, with the company’s Elytra Dark orbital vehicle stacked below the Blue Ghost lunar lander. Standing 22 feet (6.9 meters) high, the full structure is more than three times as tall as the Mission 1 lander.
This fall, a structural qualification model of the full stack was clamped to a “shaker table” inside a clean room at JPL and repeatedly rattled in three directions while hundreds of sensors monitored the rapid movement. Then, inside a separate acoustic testing chamber, giant horns blared at it from openings built into the room’s 16-inch-thick (41-centimeter-thick) concrete walls. The horns use compressed nitrogen gas to pummel spacecraft with up to 153 decibels, noise loud enough to cause permanent hearing loss in a human.
Each type of test involves several increasingly intense iterations. Between rounds, JPL’s dynamics environment experts analyze the data to compare what the spacecraft experienced to computer model predictions. Sometimes a discrepancy leads to hardware modifications, sometimes a tweak to the computer model. Engineers and technicians are careful to push the hardware, but not too far.
“You can either under-test or over-test, and both are bad,” William said. “If you over-test, you can break your hardware. If you under-test, it can break on the rocket. It’s a fine line.”
Since the model isn’t itself launching to the Moon, Firefly’s recent Environmental Test Laboratory visit didn’t include several types of trials that are generally completed only for flight hardware. A launchpad-bound spacecraft would undergo electromagnetic testing to ensure that signals from its electronic parts don’t interfere with one another. And, in what is probably the most well-known environmental test, flight-bound hardware is baked or chilled at extreme temperatures in a thermal vacuum chamber from which all the air is sucked out. The multiple thermal vacuum chamber facilities at JPL include two large historic “space simulators” built within NASA’s first few years of existence: a chamber that’s 10 feet in diameter and another that’s 25 feet across.
A full-scale model of Firefly Aerospace’s Blue Ghost Mission 2 lunar lander is prepared for delivery into a clean room at JPL’s Environmental Test Laboratory in September.
NASA/JPL-Caltech
Technicians and engineers at JPL ready a fixture that will attach a full-scale model of Firefly Aerospace’s Blue Ghost Mission 2 lunar lander, visible in the background, to a “shaker table” that tests a spacecraft’s readiness to survive the stresses of launch.
NASA/JPL-Caltech
Qualifying for launch
The completion of Environmental Test Laboratory testing on Firefly’s structural qualification model helps prove the spacecraft will survive its ride out of Earth’s atmosphere aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. Firefly’s Blue Ghost Mission 2 team is now turning its focus to completing assembly and testing of the flight hardware for launch.
Once at the Moon, the Blue Ghost lander will touch down on the far side, delivering its payloads to the surface. Those include LuSEE-Night, a radio telescope that is a joint effort by NASA, the U.S. Department of Energy, and University of California, Berkeley’s Space Sciences Laboratory. A payload developed at JPL called User Terminal will test a compact, low-cost S-band radio communications system that could enable future far-side missions to talk to each other and to relay orbiters.
Meantime, Firefly’s Elytra Dark orbital vehicle will have deployed into lunar orbit ESA’s (European Space Agency’s) Lunar Pathfinder communications satellite — a payload on which NASA is collaborating. Both vehicles will remain in orbit and able to relay data from the far-side surface back to Earth.
“Firefly’s Blue Ghost Mission 2 will deliver both NASA and international commercial payloads to further prove out technologies for Artemis and help enable a long-term presence on the Moon,” said Ray Allensworth, Firefly’s spacecraft program director. “The extensive spacecraft environmental testing we did at JPL for Mission 1 was a critical step in Firefly’s test campaign for our historic lunar mission. Now we’re collaborating again to support a successful repeat on the Moon that will unlock even more insights for future robotic and human missions.”
Clockwise from left, JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) astronaut Kimiya Yui and NASA astronauts Jonny Kim, Zena Cardman, and Mike Fincke pose for a playful portrait through a circular opening in a hatch thermal cover aboard the International Space Station on Sept. 18, 2025.
The cover provides micrometeoroid and orbital debris protection while maintaining cleanliness and pressure integrity in the vestibule between Northrop Grumman’s Cygnus XL cargo spacecraft and the orbital outpost. The opening allows for visual inspection of hatch alignment, access to the hatch handle or pressure equalization valve, and visibility for sensors or cameras during berthing operations.
Kim recently returned to Earth after 245 days in space aboard the orbital laboratory. Yui, Cardman, and Fincke remain aboard the space station, with Fincke as commander.
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
An environmental chemist at NASA JSC
NASA
Ensuring Astronaut Safety
Achieving safe exploration of space in vehicles that rely upon closed environmental systems to recycle air and water to sustain life and are operated in extremely remote locations is a major challenge. The Toxicology and Environmental Chemistry (TEC) group at Johnson Space Center (JSC) is made up of 2 interrelated groups: Toxicology support and the Environmental Chemistry Laboratory. The scientists in both groups play an important role in ensuring that the crew of the ISS are breathing clean air and drinking clean water. Personnel within the TEC establish safe spacecraft environmental limits, monitor the air and water quality aboard current spacecraft (ISS and Commercial Crew and Cargo vehicles), and support technology advancements. The TEC employs in-flight monitoring capabilities as well as postflight sample analysis techniques to monitor the air and water quality from spaceflight.
Fun Fact: We are currently recovering 85% of the water from crew urine and turning it back into drinking water.
NASA
An Agency Resource
The Toxicology group at JSC serves as the NASA-wide resource for aspects of space toxicology and is responsible for several different duties that are focused on protecting crewmembers and spacecraft systems from toxic exposures in spaceflight. These include assessing chemical hazards for flight, establishing limits for contaminants in spacecraft air and water, assessing and evaluating environmental data from spacecraft in flight, and assessing the potential for off-gas products from new vehicles or modules. These assessments are documented in:
The Environmental Chemistry laboratory at JSC occupies approximately 6,000 sq. ft. of laboratory space in one of the newest buildings on site. This is a fully equipped environmental and analytical laboratory with analysts that have supported multiple human spaceflight programs and provided center support for both gas and liquid analysis. The work in the laboratories operates under an ISO 9001/AS9100-certified quality plan with dedicated and independent quality personnel.
Liquid chromatograph mass spectrometer.
NASA
The Environmental Chemistry Laboratory monitors for contaminants in spacecraft air using both in-flight and post-flight methods. Onboard the International Space Station (ISS), 2 Air Quality Monitors (AQMs) use gas chromatography/differential mobility spectrometry to detect and quantify 23 target volatile organic compounds to provide near real-time insight into the status of the ISS atmosphere. Other real-time monitors supported by the Environmental Chemistry laboratory include the compound-specific analyzer-combustion products (CSA-CP), which use electrochemical sensors to analyze the atmosphere for the presence of compounds produced by fire, and the CO2 monitor, which uses non-dispersive infrared reflectance to monitor for the presence of elevated CO2. For detailed post-flight analysis in the Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, astronauts use grab sample containers to collect in-flight samples, which are then returned to JSC for a detailed environmental analysis. Similarly, formaldehyde monitoring kits contain badges used to collect formaldehyde. These also are returned to the ground for spectroscopic analysis.
Air quality monitors used for volatile organic compound detection positioned in the U.S. Lab on the ISS.
NASA
The Environmental Chemistry Laboratory also analyzes archival samples returned from the ISS. The majority of water consumed by crewmembers on the ISS is recycled from a combination of condensed atmospheric humidity and urine. This wastewater is then treated by the U.S. water processor assembly (WPA) to produce potable water, which is analyzed to ensure that the water meets U.S. potability requirements. Samples of the humidity condensate and condensate/urine distillate also are returned for analysis to provide insight into the operation of the WPA and the overall US water recovery system. The TEC relies upon the in-flight analytical capability provided by the ISS total organic carbon analyzer (TOCA) to determine real-time total organic carbon concentrations, which are used to protect ISS crew health as well as manage the U.S. water system consumables. Similarly, the colorimetric water quality monitoring kit (CWQMK) is used to provide insight into the biocide concentration in the U.S. water.
The CSA-CP used to monitor for evidence of fires or smoldering events on the ISS.
NASA
Water samples are also collected in flight and stored for return to Johnson Space Center. The following ground-based equipment is used to analyze archival samples to ensure suitable air and water quality:
Liquid Chromatography/Refractive Index Detection (LC/RI)
Gas Chromatography/Flame Ionization Detector (GC/FID)
Gas Chromatography/Thermal Conductivity Detector (GC/TCD)
In addition to analysis of flight samples and real-time data, the Environmental Chemistry laboratory team plays an important role in the development of new Environmental Control and Life Support Systems hardware by providing analytical support during ground testing. Similarly, the TEC scientists pursue and support technology demonstrations aimed at developing new methods for real-time data collection. Recent examples of this support have included the multi-gas monitor (MGM) and the personal CO2 monitor. TEC scientists make vital contributions to consolidating environmental monitoring hardware to reduce mass and volume requirements, both of which are important as NASA moves to more long-term missions in smaller vehicles.
The U.S. TOCA used to test water quality in real-time on the ISS
NASA
Spaceflight Air and Water Quality
Toxicology and Environmental Chemistry (TEC) monitors airborne contaminants in both spacecraft air and water. In-flight monitors are employed to provide real-time insight into the environmental conditions on ISS. Archival samples are collected and returned to Earth for full characterization of ISS air and water.
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
Statistics and Data Science
Enabling Successful Research
A major aim of biomedical research at NASA is to acquire data to evaluate, understand, and assess the biomedical hazards of spaceflight and to develop effective countermeasures. Data Science (S&DS) personnel provide statistical support to groups within the NASA JSC Human Health and Performance Directorate and other NASA communities. They have expertise in the development of complex study designs, the application of modern statistical methods, and the analysis of data collected under NASA operational constraints (small sample sizes, the limited population of astronauts).
Fun Fact: Did you know statistics is more than just means and standard deviations? Statistics is the science of collecting, analyzing, presenting and interpreting data. NASA depends on data to make decisions and statistics is crucial to making good decisions. Statistics and Data Science (S&DS) help transform data into evidence.
NASA
Data Science Support
Beyond statistics, the group aids with data engineering and exploring data. Data engineering includes extracting and transforming data in preparation for analysis and visualization. Data can come in many different formats, the S&DS team helps researchers harmonize (bring data sets together) information across sources. Exploration includes initial analysis and building informative visualizations to deepen the understanding of the evidence. Analyzing and interpreting data to produce insights follow.
S&DS statistician Dr. Alan Feiveson consulting with Lifetime Surveillance of Astronaut Health’s Statistical Data Analyst Caroline Schaefer at a Statistics helpdesk during the Human Research Program’s Investigators’ Workshop in 2017.
NASA
Statistical Consulting Services
The S&DS team provides collaboration and consulting expertise to the Directorate in the application of statistical theory and practice to ongoing biomedical research. Personnel aid in the preparation of sections of research proposals that deal with experiment design, statistical modeling, and subsequent analysis of anticipated research data. Once data are gathered, S&DS statisticians assist with analysis, visualization, and interpretation of results so that investigators can extract the most information while maintaining statistical integrity. A S&DS statistician may be a co-investigator on a project requiring sophisticated statistical modeling and/or analysis techniques. Through collaboration, members of the S&DS team expand their knowledge base in such diverse medical fields as environmental physiology, osteopathy, neurology, pharmacology, microbiology, cardiology, nutrition, and psychology. To meet the unique data collected by NASA, statisticians may develop new techniques to address challenges such as small sample sizes of ISS studies, missing data, operational constraints, and novel measures of outcome.
Outreach
Collaborators with the S&DS team often reside within the Directorate, but statistics and data science support is extended to other organizations within the Johnson Space Center, including the Engineering Directorate, Human Resources, and the Education Office. The S&DS team also provides a venue wherein high school, undergraduate, and graduate interns can participate in the analysis and interpretation of NASA biomedical data. Students assigned to the S&DS team have a rare opportunity to gain real-world experience with research in a variety of biomedical fields.
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
This view of a region called Syrtis Major is from the 100,000th image captured by NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter using its HiRISE camera. Over nearly 20 years, HiRISE has helped scientists understand how the Red Planet’s surface is constantly changing.
NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona
Mesas and dunes stand out in the view snapped by HiRISE, one of the imagers aboard the agency’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.
After nearly 20 years at the Red Planet, NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) has snapped its 100,000th image of the surface with its HiRISE camera. Short for High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment, HiRISE is the instrument the mission relies on for high-resolution images of features ranging from impact craters, sand dunes, and ice deposits to potential landing sites. Those images, in turn, help improve our understanding of Mars and prepare for NASA’s future human missions there.
Captured Oct. 7, this milestone image from the spacecraft shows mesas and dunes within Syrtis Major, a region about 50 miles (80 kilometers) southeast of Jezero Crater, which NASA’s Perseverance rover is exploring. Scientists are analyzing the image to better understand the source of windblown sand that gets trapped in the region’s landscape, eventually forming dunes.
“HiRISE hasn’t just discovered how different the Martian surface is from Earth, it’s also shown us how that surface changes over time,” said MRO’s project scientist, Leslie Tamppari of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. “We’ve seen dune fields marching along with the wind and avalanches careening down steep slopes.”
Watch highlights of images captured by HiRISE, the high-resolution camera aboard NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, including its 100,000th image, showing the plains and dunes of Syrtis Major.
NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona
The subject of the 100,000th image was recommended by a high school student through the HiWish site, where anyone can suggest parts of the planet to study. Team members at University of Arizona in Tucson, which operates the camera, also make 3D models of HiRISE imagery so that viewers can experience virtual flyover videos.
“Rapid data releases, as well as imaging targets suggested by the broader science community and public, have been a hallmark of HiRISE,” said the camera’s principal investigator, Shane Byrne of the University of Arizona in Tucson. “One hundred thousand images just like this one have made Mars more familiar and accessible for everyone.”
More about MRO
NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California manages MRO for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate in Washington as part of NASA’s Mars Exploration Program portfolio. Lockheed Martin Space in Denver built MRO and supports its operations.
The University of Arizona in Tucson operates HiRISE, which was built by Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp., in Boulder, Colorado.
The Landsat Calibration and Validation (Cal/Val) group helps uphold Landsat’s reputation as the gold standard of satellite imagery. They ensure that the Operational Land Imager (OLI) and the Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) aboard Landsats 8 and 9 provide high-quality scientific measurements to users around the world. In 2025, the Cal/Val group contributed over 60 pages to the second edition of “Comprehensive Remote Sensing” (Kaita et. al, 2026), organizing content from NASA, USGS, academia, and industry scientists. Cal/Val support staff authored multiple sections, including a summary of results from Landsat 9 and of the evolution of spectral, spatial, and radiometric characteristics throughout the Landsat missions.
A natural-color Landsat 9 image of Railroad Valley Playa in Nevada, acquired on June 29, 2024. A portion of the playa is used as a radiometric calibration and validation site for various satellite sensors including Landsat 8 and 9’s OLI instruments.
NASA/USGS
The Cal/Val team at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center works closely with the Landsat Flight Operations Team to plan weekly calibration activities to maintain the radiometric accuracy of Landsat products. In October 2025, a Landsat 9 anomaly occurred related to its solar array drive assembly (SADA) potentiometer. The spacecraft and instruments were placed in a safehold, pausing data collections. The Cal/Val team assessed the instruments after they recovered from this anomaly, including monitoring the instrument telemetry, detector gains, and noise performance. The team identified a mis-loaded detector map and updated the calibration of both the reflective and thermal emissive bands to ensure consistent, accurate data. After six days in the safehold, the instrument resumed normal operations.
The NASA Cal/Val team supports their USGS counterparts with quarterly updates to the Calibration Parameter File (CPF) by providing inputs for relative and absolute gains as needed. This work involves collaborating with USGS scientists to ensure the consistency of the Combined Radiometric Model (CRaM). The CRaM approach integrates radiometric responses from on-board calibrators to enhance long-term calibration stability throughout mission lifetimes. The CRaM algorithm also provides an extensible framework for future satellite missions. A peer-reviewed publication detailing the CRaM’s approach and future applications was submitted to Science of Remote Sensing.
On January 14-16, 2025, the Landsat Cal/Val team organized and hosted the first semiannual Technical Information Meeting (TIM) at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. NASA and USGS scientists welcomed collaborating scientists from South Dakota State University (SDSU), the University of Arizona Tucson, and Rochester Institute of Technology for presentations and discussions on Landsat imaging performance, algorithms, and instrument health. On May 28-29, 2025, the Cal/Val team attended the second semiannual TIM at SDSU.
The Landsat Cal/Val Team is validating the accuracy of the Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) v2.0 product, which combines data from multiple satellites to create a continuous record of Earth’s surface reflectance measurements since 2013. The team is testing the dataset using RadCalNet, a global network of automated ground stations that provide precise, standardized measurements. The team compared measurements from four RadCalNet sites, including the well-established Railroad Valley Playa site in Nevada, against near-simultaneous HLS data. Their analysis shows the satellite and ground measurements agree within expected uncertainty ranges—a strong validation of the HLS product’s accuracy.
The team presented these findings at the CEOS IVOS calibration meeting in Tucson, Arizona (September 1-5, 2025) and is currently preparing a peer-reviewed article to share the complete results.
Path Forward
The Cal/Val team applies lessons learned from Landsat missions to better plan calibration efforts for the next generation of instruments. Using instrument performance checklists from Landsat 8/9, the team is building a framework of in-house geometric and radiometric testing and extending algorithms for future Landsat instruments.
The Landsat Cal/Val Team is actively tackling a critical challenge in solar irradiance modeling. While new hyperspectral sensor technologies have made it possible to create highly accurate solar models with much lower uncertainty, the remote sensing community still lacks agreed-upon methods for applying these advanced models. A dedicated subgroup within the Landsat Cal/Val Team is now developing and testing standardized approaches to bridge this gap. Their goal is to create clear recommendations and best practices that the scientific community can refine together and implement consistently.
This work addresses a fundamental need—transforming promising hyperspectral solar modeling capabilities into practical, standardized tools that researchers can confidently use across different projects and applications.
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
Microbiology Laboratory at JSC NASA.
Microorganisms and Spaceflight
Spaceflight poses a risk of adverse health effects due to the interactions between microorganisms, their hosts, and their environment. The JSC Microbiology team addresses the benefits and risks related to microorganisms, including infectious disease, allergens, environmental and food contamination, and the impacts of changes in environmental and human microbial ecology aboard spacecraft. The team includes certified medical technologists, environmental microbiologists, mycologists, and biosafety professionals.
The JSC Microbiology laboratory is a critical component of the Human Health and Performance Directorate and is responsible for addressing crew health and environmental issues related to microbial infection, allergens, and contamination. This responsibility is achieved by operational monitoring and investigative research using classical microbiological, advanced molecular, and immunohistochemical techniques. This research has resulted in a significant number of presentations and peer-reviewed publications contributing to the field of Microbiology with articles in journals such as Infection and Immunity, Journal of Infectious Disease and Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Nature Reviews Microbiology, and Proceedings of the National Academies of Science.
Fun Fact: Microorganisms display unexpected responses when grown in the spaceflight environment compared to otherwise identically grown microbes on Earth.
NASA
Christian Castro is streaking bacteria to be characterized using a variety of culture media. Photo Date: May 29, 2018. Location: Building 21 – Microbiology Lab.
NASA
Keeping Crew-members Safe
As a functional part of the Crew Health Care System and in support of Environmental Control and Life Support Systems engineers, the Microbiology Laboratory team defines requirements, coordinates and analyzes microbial sampling, and analysis of air, surface, and water samples. These environmental samples, including preflight and in-flight samples, re-analyzed to ensure that microorganisms do not adversely affect crew health or system performance.
Microbiologists also serve as team members when anomalous events occur that might affect crew health or life support systems operations. Spaceflight food samples also are evaluated preflight to decrease the risk of infectious disease to the crew.
A crewmember identifies unknown environmental microbes aboard the ISS through DNA sequencing.
NASA
Technology and Hardware
ABI DNA sequencer
Illumina MiSeq desktop sequencer
Oxford Nanopore Technologies MinION DNA / RNA sequencers
Agilent Bioanalyzer
VITEK 2 Microbial Identification
Space analogue bioreactors
An example of in-flight Surface Sampler Kit results with growth of fungal cultures after 5 days
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
NASA Immunology and Virology Lab
NASA
Does Spaceflight Alter the Human Immune System?
Getting sick on Earth is nothing to sneeze at, but for astronauts on deep space exploration missions, the risk for contracting diseases may be elevated due to altered immunity. The Human Health and Performance Directorate’s Immunology/Virology Laboratory is ideally suited to study the effects of spaceflight on the immune system. When immune cells do not function properly, the immune system cannot respond properly to threats. This may increase susceptibility to infectious disease. Altered immunity can also lead to latent virus shedding, which is the “reawakening” of certain viruses we contract in our youth by which stay with us through adulthood. Reactivation of these viruses has been observed in some crewmembers. Conversely, when immune activity heightens, the immune system reacts excessively, resulting in things like allergy or persistent rashes, which also have been reported by some crewmembers during flight. Working in collaboration with the Human Research Program, the Immunology/Virology Laboratory is actively working to characterize the changes in astronauts’ immune system during spaceflight as well as developing countermeasures to help mitigate the clinical risks for astronauts during these missions to other planets, moons, or asteroids.
Understanding the Impact of Spaceflight on Human Immune Systems
Immunology/Virology Laboratory team supported studies conducted aboard the Space Shuttle and supports investigations currently performed aboard the ISS. For studies of astronauts, the laboratory validated a novel sampling strategy to return ambient live astronaut blood samples to Earth for comprehensive immunological testing and has developed several novel biomedical assays to evaluate immunity in humans. Results from a recent immunology investigation aboard the ISS called “Validation of Procedures for Monitoring Crewmember Immune Function” or “Integrated Immune”’ were published in the journal Nature Microgravity. The data confirms that ISS crews have alterations in both the number and function of certain types of immune cells and that these alterations persist for the duration of a 6-month spaceflight. Other data from the study published in the Journal of Interferon & Cytokine Research indicates that ISS crews have changes in their blood levels of specific immune proteins called ”cytokines” during flight which persist for the duration of a 6-month mission. The laboratory is currently preparing to support physiological monitoring of Artemis deep space astronauts via novel technology developed in-house.
SS crewmembers work together during an Integrated Immune Study blood sample draw at the Human Research Facility (HRF).
NASA
Learning About Spaceflight While on Earth
The Immunology/Virology Laboratory also supports human investigations performed in Earth-based “space analog” situations. Such analogs are places where some specific conditions of spaceflight are replicated. Examples include undersea deployment, closed chamber isolation, or Antarctica winter over. Analog work may shed mechanistic light on the causes of alterations observed during flight or provide locations useful for the testing of countermeasures. The Immunology Laboratory recently supported a European Space Agency 2-year study performed at Concordia Station, Dome C, and Antarctica. Biomedical samples were collected, processed, and stabilized over the Antarctica winter by Concordia crewmembers, and preserved for shipment to NASA. The data revealed that Concordia crewmembers also experience unique patterns of immune dysregulation, some of which are like astronauts’ patterns. The laboratory also has supported recent studies in Antarctica at McMurdo Station, Neumayer III Station, and Palmer Station.
The Immunology/Virology Laboratory team also participates in ground-based investigations to determine the mechanistic reasons why certain types of immune cells do not function well during microgravity conditions. For these studies, a terrestrial “model” of microgravity cell culture is employed, referred to as “clinorotation.” Essentially, cell cultures are slowly rotated around a horizontal axis. During clinorotation, immune cells generally respond as they would during spaceflight.
NASA Immunologist Brian Crucian discusses the findings of a collaborative investigation that determined spaceflight causes changes to the immune system.
Improving Life in Space and on Earth
To “connect the dots” between observed immune changes in astronauts and potential adverse clinical consequences, the Immunology/Virology Laboratory team may support Earth-based clinical investigations. These investigations consist of studies, conducted in collaboration with physicians, of defined patent populations. The same assays, which define immune changes in astronauts, may be applied to clinical patients and the data will help NASA scientists and flight surgeons interpret the flight information, in the context of clinical risk to astronauts. To date, the Immunology/Virology Laboratory team has supported a European clinical investigation of emergency room patients, and a Houston-based investigation of shingles patients.
The Immunology/Virology Laboratory team has developed, working with translational scientists all over the world, a potential countermeasure to improve immunity in deep-space astronauts. The protocol published in the Frontiers in Immunology consists of stress-relieving techniques, certain nutritional supplements, a prescription of aerobic and resistive exercise, certain medications, and monitoring. This protocol soon will be tested at Palmer Station, Antarctica, to be followed by a flight validation aboard ISS.
Our Facility, Technology, and Hardware
Immunologists and virologists comprise the core research staff of the laboratory and postdoctoral associates, visiting scientists, and graduate students routinely perform rotations of varying lengths in the laboratory. The laboratory currently possesses an array of sophisticated research equipment, including:
Ten-, and Four-color Flow Cytometers
41-analyte capable Multiplex Analyzer
Real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction System
Fluorescent Microscopes
Confocal Microscope
Cell culture, including modeled-microgravity, facilities
In addition, we partner with the Bioanalytical Core Laboratory (BCL) to leverage equipment such as the environmental scanning electron microscope.
Points of Contact
Brian Crucian, PhD Mayra Nelman-Gonzalez Satish Mehta, PhD
NASA Immunologist Brian Crucian discusses the findings of a collaborative investigation that determined spaceflight causes changes to the immune system.
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
NASA astronaut Steve Swanson, Expedition 40 commander, holds the Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly (CDRA) in the Kibo laboratory of the International Space Station. (30 June 2014)
NASA
The JSC toxicologists establish guidelines for safe and acceptable levels of individual chemical contaminants in spacecraft air (SMACs) and drinking water (SWEGs) in collaboration with the National Research Council’s Committee on Toxicology (NRC COT) and through peer-reviewed publication. The framework for establishing these levels is documented for SMACs and SWEGs, and recent refinements to the Methods reflect current risk assessment practices.
In addition to official SMACs used for the evaluation of spacecraft air, JSC toxicologists set interim 7-day SMAC values that are listed in NASA Marshall Space Flight Center’s Materials and Processes Technical Information System (“MAPTIS”), which is used to evaluate materials and hardware off-gassing data.
Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants
A table listing the official NASA SMAC values is published in JSC 20584 (PDF, 1MB) (Last revised – June 2024). References for the published values are provided below:
NRC (1994) Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants, Volume 1, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
NRC (1996) Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants, Volume 2, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
NRC (1996) Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants, Volume 3, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
NRC (2000) Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants, Volume 4, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
NRC (2008) Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Selected Airborne Contaminants, Volume 5, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Meyers VE, Garcia HD, James JT. Safe Human Exposure Limits for Airborne Linear Siloxanes during Spaceflight. Inhalation Toxicology 2013; 25(13):735-46.
Romoser AA, Ryder VE, McCoy JT. Spacecraft Maximum Allowable Concentrations for Manganese Compounds in Mars Dust. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2019; 90(8):709-719.
Scully RR, Garcia H, McCoy JT, Ryder VE. Revisions to Limits for Methanol in the Air of Spacecraft. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2019; 90(9):807-812.
Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Waterborne Contaminants
A table listing the official NASA SWEG values is published in JSC 63414 Rev A (PDF, 426KB) (Last revised – November 2023). References for the published values are provided below:
NRC (2004) Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants, Volume 1, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
NRC (2006) Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants, Volume 2, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
NRC (2008) Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants, Volume 3, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Ramanathan R, James JT, McCoy T. (2012) Acceptable levels for ingestion of dimethylsilanediol in water on the International Space Station. Aviat Space Environ Med. 83(6):598-603.
Garcia, HD, Tsuji, JS, James, JT. (2014) Establishment of exposure guidelines for lead in spacecraft drinking water. Aviat Space Environ Med. 85:715-20.
Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 PI Christopher Neigh shares milestones and a vision for the future
In 2025, the Harmonized Landsat and Sentinel-2 (HLS) program established itself as a cornerstone for global medium-resolution optical Earth observation and became one of NASA’s most downloaded products. The seamless, analysis-ready dataset is free for anyone to use and download on NASA Earthdata: HLSL30v2.0 and HLSS30v2.0. HLS version 2.0 (Ju et al., 2025), released in July, represents a major advancement in algorithm sophistication and dataset completeness. The improved surface reflectance dataset now extends globally back to 2013 (excluding Antarctica) and integrates observations from Landsat 8/9 and Sentinel-2A/B/C satellites, achieving an unprecedented median revisit interval of less than 1.6 days. This high frequency of observations transforms our ability to monitor Earth’s changing surface.
Patches of purple across Canada show where vegetation disturbances were detected in 2023.
NASA’s Earth Observatory/Wanmei Liang
June saw the first in-person HLS meeting between NASA headquarters, the Satellite Needs Working Group (SNWG), and representatives from NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center and Marshall Space Flight Center, representing enhanced coordination and strategic alignment. The HLS project also serves as a critical steppingstone for advancing collaboration between NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA).
HLS’s frequent revisit is one of its key values to data users. Zhou et al. (2025) evaluated the cloud-free coverage of HLS V2.0 in 2022 and found that HLS data provided observations every 1.6 days at the global scale and 2.2 days in data-scarce tropical regions. This temporal resolution addresses one of the most persistent challenges in optical remote sensing: obtaining cloud-free observations for time-sensitive applications.
HLS Impacts
Already, scientists are putting HLS to use for practical and scientific applications. Zhou et al. (2025) evaluated the global consistency, reliability, and uncertainty of the newly-released suite of nine HLS vegetation indices. This assessment provides the scientific community with confidence in using HLS-derived vegetation indices for agriculture, forestry, ecosystem monitoring, and more.
Pickens et al. (2025) unveiled a global land change monitoring system, DIST-ALERT, based on HLS data. DIST-ALERT highlights HLS’s transformative impact on environmental monitoring, identifying new land change dynamics that are impossible to track with Landsat or Sentinel observations alone.
Vision for the Future
The HLS program continues to evolve to deliver high-quality, reliable data to its expanding user base. Shi et al. (2026, under review in Remote Sensing of Environment) developed Fmask version 5.0, employing a hybrid approach combining physical rules, machine learning, and deep learning for cloud masking. When released, this next-generation cloud detection algorithm will improve the accuracy and consistency of cloud/cloud-shadow screening—a critical component for maximizing usable observations in the HLS time series.
Looking forward, the HLS vision encompasses:
Enhanced Algorithms: Integrating Fmask v5.0 and refining harmonization algorithms to further reduce inter-sensor differences and improve accuracy across diverse conditions.
Meeting User Needs: Strengthening partnerships with operational agencies and downstream users to ensure HLS products effectively support applications including agriculture, water resources, disaster response, and climate adaptation.
Continuity and Sustainability: Planning for long-term data continuity as Landsat Next and future Sentinel missions come online, ensuring seamless transition and multi-decadal consistency.
Community Engagement: Expanding training, documentation, and outreach to maximize HLS adoption across the global user community, particularly in regions where frequent, free, analysis-ready data can transform environmental monitoring capabilities.
The HLS program exemplifies successful international collaboration in Earth observation, delivering on the promise of harmonized, frequent, global-scale monitoring. As we build on the foundation of HLS v2.0, the program is positioned to enable breakthrough science and operational applications that were previously impossible with individual satellite missions alone.
This artist’s concept shows what the exoplanet called PSR J2322-2650b (left) may look like as it orbits a rapidly spinning neutron star called a pulsar (right).
Credits: Illustration: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralf Crawford (STScI)
Scientists using NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope have observed a rare type of exoplanet, or planet outside our solar system, whose atmospheric composition challenges our understanding of how it formed.
Officially named PSR J2322-2650b, this Jupiter-mass object appears to have an exotic helium-and-carbon-dominated atmosphere unlike any ever seen before. Soot clouds likely float through the air, and deep within the planet, these carbon clouds can condense and form diamonds. How the planet came to be is a mystery. The paper appears Tuesday in The Astrophysical Journal Letters.
“This was an absolute surprise,” said study co-author Peter Gao of the Carnegie Earth and Planets Laboratory in Washington. “I remember after we got the data down, our collective reaction was ‘What the heck is this?’ It’s extremely different from what we expected.”
Image A: Exoplanet PSR J2322-2650b and Pulsar (Artist’s Concept)
This artist’s concept shows what the exoplanet called PSR J2322-2650b (left) may look like as it orbits a rapidly spinning neutron star called a pulsar (right). Gravitational forces from the much heavier pulsar are pulling the Jupiter-mass world into a bizarre lemon shape.
Illustration: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralf Crawford (STScI)
This planet-mass object was known to orbit a pulsar, a rapidly spinning neutron star. A pulsar emits beams of electromagnetic radiation at regular intervals typically ranging from milliseconds to seconds. These pulsing beams can only be seen when they are pointing directly toward Earth, much like beams from a lighthouse.
This millisecond pulsar is expected to be emitting mostly gamma rays and other high energy particles, which are invisible to Webb’s infrared vision. Without a bright star in the way, scientists can study the planet in intricate detail across its whole orbit.
“This system is unique because we are able to view the planet illuminated by its host star, but not see the host star at all,” said Maya Beleznay, a third-year PhD candidate at Stanford University in California who worked on modeling the shape of the planet and the geometry of its orbit. “So we get a really pristine spectrum. And we can study this system in more detail than normal exoplanets.”
“The planet orbits a star that’s completely bizarre — the mass of the Sun, but the size of a city,” said the University of Chicago’s Michael Zhang, the principal investigator on this study. “This is a new type of planet atmosphere that nobody has ever seen before. Instead of finding the normal molecules we expect to see on an exoplanet — like water, methane, and carbon dioxide — we saw molecular carbon, specifically C3 and C2.”
Molecular carbon is very unusual because at these temperatures, if there are any other types of atoms in the atmosphere, carbon will bind to them. (Temperatures on the planet range from 1,200 degrees Fahrenheit at the coldest points of the night side to 3,700 degrees Fahrenheit at the hottest points of the day side.) Molecular carbon is only dominant if there’s almost no oxygen or nitrogen. Out of the approximately 150 planets that astronomers have studied inside and outside the solar system, no others have any detectable molecular carbon.
PSR J2322-2650b is extraordinarily close to its star, just 1 million miles away. In contrast, Earth’s distance from the Sun is about 100 million miles. Because of its extremely tight orbit, the exoplanet’s entire year — the time it takes to go around its star — is just 7.8 hours. Gravitational forces from the much heavier pulsar are pulling the Jupiter-mass planet into a bizarre lemon shape.
Image B: Exoplanet PSR J2322-2650b (Artist’s Concept)
This artist’s concept shows what the exoplanet PSR J2322-2650b may look like. Gravitational forces from the much heavier pulsar it orbits are pulling the Jupiter-mass world into this bizarre lemon shape.
Illustration: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralf Crawford (STScI)
Together, the star and exoplanet may be considered a “black widow” system, though not a typical example. Black widow systems are a rare type of double system where a rapidly spinning pulsar is paired with a small, low-mass stellar companion. In the past, material from the companion streamed onto the pulsar, causing the pulsar to spin faster over time, which powers a strong wind. That wind and radiation then bombard and evaporate the smaller and less massive companion. Like the spider for which it is named, the pulsar slowly consumes its unfortunate partner.
But in this case, the companion is officially considered an exoplanet, not a star. The International Astronomical Union defines an exoplanet as a celestial body below 13 Jupiter masses that orbits a star, brown dwarf, or stellar remnant, such as a pulsar.
Of the 6,000 known exoplanets, this is the only one reminiscent of a gas giant (with mass, radius, and temperature similar to a hot Jupiter) orbiting a pulsar. Only a handful of pulsars are known to have planets.
“Did this thing form like a normal planet? No, because the composition is entirely different,” said Zhang. “Did it form by stripping the outside of a star, like ‘normal’ black widow systems are formed? Probably not, because nuclear physics does not make pure carbon. It’s very hard to imagine how you get this extremely carbon-enriched composition. It seems to rule out every known formation mechanism.”
Study co-author Roger Romani, of Stanford University and the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology Institute, proposes one evocative phenomenon that could occur in the unique atmosphere. “As the companion cools down, the mixture of carbon and oxygen in the interior starts to crystallize,” said Romani. “Pure carbon crystals float to the top and get mixed into the helium, and that’s what we see. But then something has to happen to keep the oxygen and nitrogen away. And that’s where the mystery come in.
“But it’s nice to not know everything,” said Romani. “I’m looking forward to learning more about the weirdness of this atmosphere. It’s great to have a puzzle to go after.”
Video A: Exoplanet PSR J2322-2650b and Pulsar (Artist’s Concept)
This animation shows an exotic exoplanet orbiting a distant pulsar, or rapidly rotating neutron star with radio pulses. The planet, which orbits about 1 million miles away from the pulsar, is stretched into a lemon shape by the pulsar’s strong gravitational tides.
Animation: NASA, ESA, CSA, Ralf Crawford (STScI)
With its infrared vision and exquisite sensitivity, this is a discovery only the Webb telescope could make. Its perch a million miles from Earth and its huge sunshield keep the instruments very cold, which is necessary for these observations. It is not possible to conduct this study from the ground.
The James Webb Space Telescope is the world’s premier space science observatory. Webb is solving mysteries in our solar system, looking beyond to distant worlds around other stars, and probing the mysterious structures and origins of our universe and our place in it. Webb is an international program led by NASA with its partners, ESA (European Space Agency) and CSA (Canadian Space Agency).
The following sections contain links to download this article’s images and videos in all available resolutions followed by related information links, media contacts, and if available, research paper and spanish translation links.
Related Images & Videos
Exoplanet PSR J2322-2650b and Pulsar (Artist’s Concept)
This artist’s concept shows what the exoplanet called PSR J2322-2650b (left) may look like as it orbits a rapidly spinning neutron star called a pulsar (right). Gravitational forces from the much heavier pulsar are pulling the Jupiter-mass world into a bizarre lemon shape.
Exoplanet PSR J2322-2650b (Artist’s Concept)
This artist’s concept shows what the exoplanet PSR J2322-2650b may look like. Gravitational forces from the much heavier pulsar it orbits are pulling the Jupiter-mass world into this bizarre lemon shape.
Exoplanet PSR J2322-2650b Orbiting a Pulsar
This animation shows an exotic exoplanet orbiting a distant pulsar, or rapidly rotating neutron star with radio pulses. The planet, which orbits about 1 million miles away from the pulsar, is stretched into a lemon shape by the pulsar’s strong gravitational tides. NASA&rsqu…
The NASA ORBIT (Opportunities in Research, Business, Innovation, and Technology for the Workforce) Challenge is a multi-phase, student-focused challenge designed to inspire and empower the next generation of innovators, engineers, entrepreneurs, and researchers.
Compete for cash prizes, receive mentorship from NASA experts, and present your work at an in-person showcase. Finalists gain access to an exclusive accelerator program designed to launch careers in STEM and entrepreneurship.
NASA’s Carruthers Geocorona Observatory has captured its first images from space, revealing rare views of Earth and the Moon in ultraviolet light. Taken on Nov. 17 — still months before the mission’s science phase begins — these “first light” images confirm the spacecraft is healthy while hinting at the incredible views to come.
The initial images consist of two from Carruthers’ Wide Field Imager and two from its Narrow Field Imager. Each imager captured two different views: one showing a broad spectrum of far ultraviolet light, and one revealing light from Earth’s geocorona.
These four images constitute the “first light” for the Carruthers Geocorona Observatory mission. The images were taken on Nov. 17, 2025, from a location near the Sun-Earth Lagrange point 1 by the spacecraft’s Wide Field Imager (left column) and Narrow Field Imager (right column) in far ultraviolet light (top row) and the specific wavelength of light emitted by atomic hydrogen known as Lyman-alpha (bottom row). Earth is the larger, bright circle near the middle of each image; the Moon is the smaller circle below and to the left of it. The fuzzy “halo” around Earth in the images in the bottom row is the geocorona: the ultraviolet light emitted by Earth’s exosphere, or outermost atmospheric layer. The lunar surface still shines in Lyman-alpha because its rocky surface reflects all wavelengths of sunlight — one reason it is important to compare Lyman-alpha images with the broad ultraviolet filter. The far ultraviolet light imagery from the Narrow Field Imagery also captured two background stars, whose surface temperatures must be approximately twice as hot as the our Sun’s to be so bright in this wavelength of light.
NASA/Carruthers Geocorona Observatory
When Carruthers captured these images, the Moon was also in its field of view and slightly closer to the spacecraft than Earth was, making the Moon appear larger and closer to Earth than usual.
The specific wavelength Carruthers observed in two of the images, called Lyman-alpha, is light emitted by atomic hydrogen. The faint glow of Lyman-alpha from hydrogen in Earth’s outer atmosphere is called the “geocorona,” Latin for “Earth crown.”
In the broad-spectrum images, the Moon and Earth look similar: both are spheres with well-defined edges. However, in the Lyman-alpha filter, the Moon still appears as a crisp, sharp sphere while Earth appears surrounded by a bright “fuzz” extending out to space. This glow is the geocorona, the primary focus of the Carruthers mission. It is the only way to “see” Earth’s outermost atmospheric layer, although the light of the geocorona has only been photographed a handful of times in history. Carruthers will be the first mission to image it repeatedly, and from far enough away to see its great extent and discover how it changes over time.
These first images also offer a rare treat: sunlight reflected off the far side of the Moon, a view impossible to capture from Earth.
Original
Annotated
Original
Annotated
Carruthers Geocorona ObservatorY
A View of Earth’s Geocorona
Narrow Field Imager/Lyman-alpha filter
This view of the Earth, Moon, and Earth’s geocorona was captured by the Carruthers Geocorona Observatory’s Narrow Field Imager on Nov. 17, 2025. Move the slider to switch between the original version and one with overlaid annotations. In the annotated version, labels for Earth, the Moon, and Earth’s geocorona are overlaid on the image. The circle around Earth represents Earth’s surface, and the arc around Earth’s middle represents the orientation of Earth’s equator. The arrow pointing up and slightly to the left from Earth represents Earth’s rotational axis. The arrow pointing out to the right from Earth represents the direction to the Sun. The color scale indicates brightness, with brighter light appearing more yellow and dimmer light appearing more blue. The ‘glow’ that extends beyond Earth’s surface and out into space is Earth’s geocorona, which is emitted by hydrogen atoms in Earth’s exosphere in a wavelength of ultraviolet light known as Lyman-alpha.
These initial images were taken with short, five-minute exposures — just long enough to confirm that the instrument is performing well. During the main science phase, Carruthers will take 30-minute exposures, allowing it to reveal even fainter details of the geocorona and trace how Earth’s outer atmosphere responds to the changing Sun.
Carruthers launched on Sept. 24 and is just a few weeks from completing its journey to the Sun-Earth Lagrange point 1, a point of gravitational balance roughly 1 million miles closer to the Sun than Earth is. Carruthers will begin its primary science phase in March 2026, when it will begin sending back a steady stream of ultraviolet portraits of our planet’s ever-shifting outer atmosphere.
By Miles Hatfield NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.
NASA’s IMAP Mission Captures ‘First Light,’ Looks Back at Earth
All 10 instruments aboard NASA’s newly launched IMAP (Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe) mission have successfully recorded their first measurements in space. With these “first light” observations, the spacecraft is now collecting preliminary science data as it journeys to its observational post at Lagrange point 1 (L1), about 1 million miles from Earth toward the Sun.
“We are extremely pleased with the initial in-flight performance of the IMAP mission. All instruments have successfully powered on and our commissioning remains on track. We have already collected useful data including exercising our near-real-time space weather data stream,” said Brad Williams, IMAP program executive at NASA Headquarters in Washington. “This successful milestone is quickly setting the stage for the start of our primary science operations.”
As a modern-day celestial cartographer, IMAP will chart the boundaries of the heliosphere — a huge bubble created by the Sun’s wind that encapsulates our entire solar system — and study how the heliosphere interacts with the local galactic neighborhood beyond.
To map the heliosphere’s boundaries, IMAP is equipped with three instruments that measure energetic neutral atoms: IMAP-Lo, IMAP-Hi, and IMAP-Ultra. These uncharged particles, called ENAs for short, are cosmic messengers formed at the heliosphere’s edge that allow scientists to study the boundary region and its variability from afar.
These partial maps of the heliosphere’s boundaries were compiled from first-light data from the IMAP-Hi, IMAP-Lo, and IMAP-Ultra instruments. These initial looks offer a first glimpse at the detail NASA’s IMAP (Interstellar Mapping and Acceleration Probe) will be able to capture. The warmer colors show regions with more energetic neutral atoms (ENAs).
NASA
“It’s just astounding that within the first couple weeks of observations, we see such clear and consistent ENA data across the factor of 10,000 in energy covered collectively by the three imagers,” said David McComas, Princeton University professor and principal investigator for the IMAP mission. “This, plus excellent first light data from all seven of the other instruments, makes for a 10 out of 10, A-plus start to the mission.”
As IMAP travelled away from Earth, the IMAP-Ultra instrument looked back at the planet and picked up ENAs created by Earth’s magnetic environment. These terrestrially made ENAs, which overwhelm ENAs coming from the heliosphere in sheer numbers, is a reason why IMAP will be stationed at L1. There the spacecraft will have an unobstructed view of ENAs coming from the heliosphere’s boundaries.
Earth’s magnetic environment can be seen glowing bright in this image taken by the IMAP-Ultra instrument, which includes ENA data as well as noise. Earth sits at the center of the red donut-shaped structure. This image was taken as IMAP left Earth for its post at Lagrange point 1.
NASA
The mission will also study the solar wind, a continuous flow of charged particles coming from the Sun. Solar wind observations from five of IMAP’s instruments will be used by the IMAP Active Link for Real-Time (I-ALiRT) system to provide roughly a half hour’s warning to voyaging astronauts and spacecraft near Earth about harmful space weather and radiation coming their way. The IMAP instruments are already making near-real-time solar wind measurements that can be used to support space weather forecasts. The I-ALiRT network is being exercised and will be ready for space weather forecasters when IMAP starts its regular science mission at L1.
With all of IMAP’s instruments up and running, the mission has nearly completed its commissioning stage and will arrive at L1 in early January. The mission is now working to complete the final commissioning steps and instrument calibration with the goal of being ready to take operational science data starting Saturday, Feb. 1, 2026.
Here’s a look at IMAP’s instruments and what they’ve seen in their first-light observations.
IMAP-Lo, IMAP-Hi, and IMAP-Ultra
The three ENA (energetic neutral atom) instruments, IMAP-Lo, IMAP-Hi, and IMAP-Ultra, will help construct maps of the boundaries of the heliosphere, which will advance our understanding of how the solar wind interacts with our local galaxy. The green streak in this image from IMAP-Hi shows the instrument’s ability to separate ENAs from other particles such as cosmic rays (green and yellow blob).
NASA
MAG
The magnetometer instrument measures magnetic fields from the Sun that stretch across the solar system. Its first-light data clearly shows dynamic changes in the solar wind’s magnetic field due to a shockwave created by the solar wind (squiggles at right).
NASA
SWAPI
The Solar Wind and Pickup Ions (SWAPI) instrument measures ions from the solar wind and charged particles from beyond the solar system. Initial data from SWAPI showed a change in the composition of the solar wind over one day. This image shows particles from a coronal mass ejection on Nov. 11 and 12, 2025.
NASA
CoDICE
The Compact Dual Ion Composition Experiment (CoDICE) instrument measures ions from the solar wind and charged particles from beyond the solar system. It detected different types of oxygen, hydrogen, and helium atoms in its first-light data.
NASA
HIT
The High-energy Ion Telescope (HIT) measures energetic ions and electrons from the Sun. Early ion data shows the common elements up through iron.
NASA
GLOWS
Unlike other IMAP instruments that study particles, the GLObal Solar Wind Structure (GLOWS) instrument images ultraviolet light called the helioglow that is created in part by the solar wind. The first data taken with GLOWS showed helioglow and bright stars, matching scientists’ expectations for the instrument. Unexpectedly, the signature of comet C/2025 K1 (ATLAS), shown by the first small bump from the left in the image, was also seen before it disappeared from GLOWS’ view.
NASA
SWE
As its name suggests, the Solar Wind Electron (SWE) instrument measures electrons from the solar wind. In its first data collection, SWE successfully captured electrons at a range of energy levels. On Nov. 12, a solar storm passed through the solar system and SWE captured the resulting spike in the number of electrons at each energy level.
NASA
IDEX
The Interstellar Dust Experiment (IDEX) measures cosmic dust — conglomerations of particles originating outside of the solar system that are smaller than a grain of sand. Prior to IMAP, few of these dust particles had been measured. With two new detections already completed, IDEX has demonstrated its ability to become an unrivaled dust detector. This observation of one of the dust particles shows tentative identifications of the particle’s chemical composition, which includes carbon, oxygen, magnesium, silicon, and hydrogen sulfide.
NASA
By Mara Johnson-Groh NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.
Preparations for Next Moonwalk Simulations Underway (and Underwater)
Sentinel-6B and Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich captured data on Nov. 26 of sea levels across a vast stretch of the Atlantic. Within the crisscrossing bands, red indicates higher water relative to the long-term average; blue indicates lower water. The tracks are layered atop the combined observations of other sea-level satellites.
EUMETSAT
Launched in November, Sentinel-6B will track ocean height with ultraprecision to advance marine forecasting, national security, and more.
Sentinel-6B, a joint mission by NASA and its U.S. and European partners to survey 90% of the world’s oceans for the benefit of communities and commerce, has started sending back its first measurements since launching in November. A newly published map of the data shows sea levels across a vast stretch of the Eastern Seaboard and Atlantic Ocean.
About the size of a pickup truck, Sentinel-6B extends a decades-long effort led by the United States and Europe to track ocean height down to fractions of an inch using radar altimetry. Once its instruments and algorithms are fully calibrated next year, Sentinel-6B will return actionable data for ship crews, weather forecasters, national security, and the millions of people who live and work near coastlines.
“NASA does incredible science using the unique vantage point of space every day to deliver life-saving data directly into the hands of decision-makers for storms, navigation, flooding, and more,” said Nicky Fox, associate administrator, Science Mission Directorate, NASA Headquarters in Washington. “The ocean measurements that Sentinel-6B collected during its first months in orbit benefit all, providing key insights to ensure the prosperity and security of coastal communities around the globe.”
In addition to measuring sea level, instruments aboard the satellite will gather information on wind speeds, wave heights, atmospheric temperature, and humidity. In turn, that data can be used by U.S. agencies as well as to refine the Goddard Earth Observing System atmospheric forecast models, which the NASA Engineering and Safety Center relies on to plan safer re-entry of astronauts returning from Artemis missions.
Mission teams in recent weeks have verified that Sentinel-6B and all its instruments are in good health. That includes the Poseidon-4 Synthetic Aperture Radar altimeter, the Advanced Microwave Radiometer for Climate, the Global Navigation Satellite System – Radio Occultation, and the Precise Orbit Determination Package.
In the visualization above, featuring data captured by Sentinel-6B on Nov. 26, the crisscrossing bands trace the satellite’s path as it orbits Earth. The image also shows data collected on the same day by the satellite’s twin, Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich, which launched in 2020. The data in those bands is layered over the combined observations of other sea-level satellites across the region shown. Red indicates higher water relative to the long-term average; blue areas indicate lower water. Because the spacecraft’s instruments have not been fully calibrated, the data is considered preliminary but also quite promising.
Together, Sentinel-6B and Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich make up the Copernicus Sentinel-6/Jason-CS (Continuity of Service) mission developed by NASA, ESA (European Space Agency), EUMETSAT (European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites), and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
“These first light images from Sentinel-6B underscore the value of Earth science observations in providing life-saving and economic-empowering data to communities along our world’s coastlines, where a third of the globe’s population lives,” said Karen St. Germain, director, NASA Earth Science Division at the agency’s headquarters. “This achievement also highlights the power of partnerships with ESA, EUMETSAT, and our sister science agency NOAA in advancing our collective understanding of Earth systems and putting that Earth science understanding to work for the benefit of humanity.”
Sentinel-6/Jason-CS adds to a continuous sea level rise dataset that began in the early 1990s. Since then, the rate of sea level rise globally has doubled and currently averages about 0.17 inches (4.3 millimeters) per year. The rate differs between locations, with implications for coastal infrastructure, trade routes, and storm formation.
“The accuracy and precision of this mission’s gold-standard dataset speaks to the foresight, more than 30 years ago, of investing in the technology and expertise that make it possible,” said Dave Gallagher, director, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. “We’re proud to continue partnering to collect these critical measurements into another decade, and even prouder of the teams behind this most recent milestone.”
Flying 830 miles (1,336 kilometers) above Earth, Sentinel-6B is about 30 seconds behind its twin, Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich, currently the official reference satellite for sea level. Eventually, Sentinel-6B will take over that role, and Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich will move into a different orbit.
More about Sentinel-6B
Copernicus Sentinel-6/Jason-CS was jointly developed by ESA, EUMETSAT, NASA, and NOAA, with funding support from the European Commission and technical support from CNES. The mission, starting with Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich, marked the first international involvement in Copernicus, the European Union’s Earth Observation Programme.
Managed for NASA by Caltech in Pasadena, JPL contributed three science instruments for each Sentinel-6 satellite: the Advanced Microwave Radiometer, the Global Navigation Satellite System – Radio Occultation, and the laser retroreflector array. NASA also contributed launch services, ground systems supporting operation of the NASA science instruments, the science data processors for two of these instruments, and support for the international ocean surface topography community.
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